Quantum control and trapped ions

Ion traps and quantum information

Quantum control and trapped ions

Laser cooling is a process which allows atoms to be brought to their motional ground state, or into a condensate state. A natural generalization would be to devise processes which allow atoms to be brought to arbitrary quantum states; this is a goal of a growing subject area known as quantum control. In this section, we consider an example of open loop quantum control, as an illustrative example of this area of inquiry, focused on creation of arbitrary states of motion of a single ion.

Quantum control in perspective

Quantum control has many applications in modern physics. Chemical reaction rates can be highly dependent on the electronic, magnetic, and motional states, of the reactants; it has been shown that femptosecond laser excitation can be used to enhance and steer reactions by controlling these quantum states. Biological molecules involve energy transfer, for example, in photosynthesis, which couple electron transfer and conformation changes on short timescales; it has been shown that these processes have important coherent steps which can also be externally controlled and shaped. And atomic physics makes increasing use of exotic quantum states, including squeezed states and entanglement, for precision metrology and studies of fundamental quantum physics. The concept of quantum control builds on the extensive field of classical control of dynamical systems. Classical control theory provides basic definitions for the model system, what it means to be able to control the system ("control objectives"), general strategies for achieving control and evaluating things such as the robustness of the control, and theorems with conditions which must be satisfied for a system to be controllable. We may model a quantum system being controlled as having, in addition to the quantum system itself (eg atoms) and its environment, a measurement apparatus (eg fluorescence detectors), and an actuator acting back on the system (eg lasers):

\noindent Two main control objectives, in this context, are (1) state engineering: steering the quantum system into an arbitrary quantum state, and (2) process engineering: realizing an arbitrary unitary transform on the quantum system. Many general strategies exist for achieving these quantum control objectives. Broadly, these all involve some modification of the system Hamiltonian Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle H_{sys}} using control Hamiltonian Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle H_{ctrl} = \sum_k c(t) H_k^{ctrl}} . Strategies include: \begin{enumerate}

• Open loop control: no feedback, state Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle |\psi(t=0){\rangle}} is known
• Closed loop control: feedback based on classical

measurement record, with either weak measurements and continuous feedback, or strong measurement and feedback at discrete times, or adaptive measurements changed based on classical record

• Coherent control: use of an ancilla quantum system in

place of the measurement and actuator, with controllable coupling to the system under control

• Learning control: applied to ensembles, with feedforward

control in place of feedback to systems individually \end{enumerate} The presence of interactions with an environment significantly complicates quantum control. Also, in strong contrast to classical control, measurement of a quantum system produces significant back-action, and if not applied appropriately, can collapse desired superposition states. Noisy actuation also induces quantum noise in the system, which must be dealt with using unusual methods, such as quantum error correction and decoherence free subsystems, if fragile entanglement is to be preserved. Many conceptual issues remain to be resolved in defining scenarios for application of quantum control. However, at least for the simplest scenarios, useful and clear limits can be established. And in the absence of decoherence, if a system is not controllable, then it is likely that the presence of decoherence will not improve controllability. For example, one basic theorem in quantum control is the following: \begin{quote} Theorem: A (closed) quantum system with Hamiltonian Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle H_{sys}} , in Hilbert space Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle V_H} , with controls Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \{C_k(t) H_k^{ctrl}\}} , is {\em controllable} iff any Hamiltonian on Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle V_H} can be generated in the closure of $\{H_{sys},H_{k}^{ctrl}\}$. \end{quote} \noindent In this theorem, closure refers to the completion of the algebra of the Hamiltonians by commuting all given Hamiltonians with each other, recursively, until no new terms are produced. If any Hamiltonian on Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle V_H} can be expressed as a linear combination of these terms, then the system is controllable. Some examples are helpful in illustrating this theorem. \begin{itemize}

• Example 1: Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle H_{sys} = \hbar\omega_0 \sigma_z} , Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle H_{ctrl} = \Omega(t) \sigma_x} . This system is controllable, because any

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle H=a\sigma_x + b\sigma_y + c\sigma_z} can be generated by $H_{sys}$ and Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle H_{ctrl}} , since Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle [\sigma_x,\sigma_z] = -2i\sigma_y} .

• Example 2: Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle H_{sys} = \hbar\omega_0 \sigma_z} , Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle H_{ctrl} = \Omega(t) \sigma_z} . This system is not controllable.
• Example 3: $H_{sys}=\hbar \nu a^{\dagger }a$, Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle H_{ctrl} = \alpha^* a + \alpha a^\dagger } . This system is not controllable.
• Example 4: Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle H_{sys} = \hbar\omega_0 \sigma_z + \hbar\nu a^\dagger a} , Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle H_{ctrl} = \Omega(t) \sigma_x (a+ a^\dagger )} . This system is

not controllable.

• Example 5: Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle H_{sys} = \hbar\omega_0 \sigma_z + \hbar\nu a^\dagger a} , Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle H_{ctrl} = \Omega(t) \cos[\eta (a+ a^\dagger )-\omega t]}

(Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \Omega} and Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \omega} are the control parameters). This system {\em is} controllable. \end{itemize} The last of these examples describes a single trapped ion, controlled by incident laser light, as we shall now explore.

Motional state control: a trapped ion

Let us consider quantum control of a single trapped ion, modeled by a system of photon + atom + phonon. We will let the photon light field be classical, and treat the atom and phonon quantum-mechanically. The energy eigenstates of the atom + phonon system may be depicted as a ladder:

\noindent And as we have previously seen, the interaction Hamiltonian is

$H_{I}=\Omega \cos \left[{\eta (a+a^{\dagger })-\omega t}\right]\,.$

The motion-changing amplitudes of this interaction we are interested in come from

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \langle e,m| H |g,n \rangle = \frac{\hbar\Omega}{2} \langle m| e^{i\eta(a+ a^\dagger )} |n{\rangle} \,, }

which are, to lowest order in the Lamb-Dicke parameter Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \eta} ,

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \begin{array}{rcl} \langle e,n| H|g,n \rangle &=& \frac{\hbar\Omega}{2} (1+O(\eta^2)) \\ \langle e,n+1| H|g,n \rangle &=& \frac{\hbar\Omega}{2} (\eta \sqrt{n+1}+O(\eta^3)) \\ \langle e,n-1| H|g,n \rangle &=& \frac{\hbar\Omega}{2} (\eta \sqrt{n}+O(\eta^3)) \,. \end{array}}

These three correspond to the carrier transition and the blue and red sidebands:

When the laser is near resonance, Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \omega_L\approx \omega_{eg}} , such that the detuning Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \Delta\approx 0} , and the incident intensity is low, such that Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \Omega\ll\nu/\eta} , the effective Hamiltonian of the system is

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle H \approx \hbar\nu a^\dagger a - \hbar\Delta |e \rangle \langle e| - \frac{\hbar\Omega}{2} \left( { |e \rangle \langle g| + |g \rangle \langle e| } \right) \,. }

Physically, this describes the interaction of a well-localized ion, having momentum spread greater than the recoil momentum from a single photon. Absorption of a photon in this case cannot excite phonons; just as in the M\"ossbauer effect, the phonon spectrum has a gap in the energy spectrum at the recoil energy, causing the whole atom and trap to recoil instead of just the atom. When the laser is detuned to $\omega _{L}\approx \omega _{eg}-\nu$, the red sideband is excited, giving the approximate Hamiltonian

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle H \approx \hbar\nu a^\dagger a - \hbar\Delta |e \rangle \langle e| - \frac{i\eta\hbar\Omega}{2} \left( { |e \rangle \langle g| a - |g \rangle \langle e| a^\dagger } \right) \,. }

This is identical to the Cavity-QED in the strong coupling limit, described by the Jaynes-Cummings Hamiltonian. The light couples states on the ladder with Rabi frequencies which grow as Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \sqrt{n}} :

When the laser is detuned to Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \omega_L\approx \omega_{eg}+\nu} , the blue sideband is excited, giving the approximate Hamiltonian

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle H \approx \hbar\nu a^\dagger a - \hbar\Delta |e \rangle \langle e| - \frac{i\eta\hbar\Omega}{2} \left( { |e \rangle \langle g| a^\dagger - |g \rangle \langle e| a } \right) \,. }

This is known as the "anti Jaynes-Cummings" Hamiltonian, with light coupling states on the ladder as:

\noindent Given that pairs of levels are coupled independently by the sideband excitation, it is convenient to define Rabi frequencies for these pairs, Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \Omega_n = \eta \Omega\sqrt{n+1}} .

Fock, coherent, and Schr\"odinger cat states of an ion

Let us now turn to the challenge of creating specific motional states of a trapped ion, using the given carrier and sideband Hamiltonians. First, note that the state Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle |g,0{\rangle}} can be prepared using Doppler cooling, followed by resolved sideband cooling. What experimental signature attests to the ion being in the Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle |g,0{\rangle}} state? One ion used in experiments is $^{138}$BaFailed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle ^+} , which has three relevant levels, much like most ions trapped:

Because of the extraordinary Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \sim 32} second lifetime of the Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle D_{5/2}} state, fluorescence jumps are observed in the Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle 493.5} nm spectrum, as the ion is weakly excited at Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle 1760} nm:

\noindent (this and other data shown here taken from {\em Quantum dynamics of single trapped ions}, by Leibfried, Blatt, Monroe, and Wineland, Rev. Mod. Phys., v75, p281, 2003). The statistics of such jumps this provides very sensitive information about the internal state of an ion. Specifically, as the narrow S-D frequency laser is scanned through the sideband frequencies, a spectrum such as this is observed:

Let Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle P_{RSB}} and Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle P_{BSB}} be the intensities of the observed red and blue sidebands, respectively. When the motional quantum number $n$ has a thermal distribution, it is straightforward to show that the ratio Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle R} of these two intensities gives

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle R = \frac{P_{RSB}}{P_{BSB}} = \frac{\bar{n}}{\bar{n}+1} \,, }

such that the mean phonon number is

${\bar {n}}={\frac {R}{1-R}}\,.$

This is a sideband spectrum been obtained after resolved sideband cooling:

Fock states

Now consider the challenge of creating not just Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle |g,0{\rangle}} , but rather a nonzero Fock state of the ion motion, Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle |g,n{\rangle}} . This can be realized, in principle, by applying a sequence of Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \pi} pulses on the blue sideband:

\noindent The unitary transformation effected by laser on the blue sideband perform rotations on the two-level manifolds which the excitations connect, described by

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle R^{BSB}_\phi(\theta) = \exp \left[ { i\frac{\theta}{2}( e^{i\phi}\sigma^+ a + e^{-i\phi}\sigma^- a^\dagger )} \right] \,, }

and similarly for the red sideband, so that

$|g,2n\rangle \approx \left[{R_{x}^{RSB}(\pi )R_{x}^{BSB}(\pi )}\right]^{n}|g,0{\rangle }\,,$

where an approximation comes from assuming that the Rabi frequencies for all the transitions are the same. They are not: they increase as Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \sqrt{n+1}} , so the pulse widths (or intensities) must increase as Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle n} increases. Odd numbered Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle n} Fock states can be created by inserting an additional carrier $\pi$ pulse. Experimentally, the signature of having created Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle |g,n{\rangle}} can be obtained by measuring the Rabi frequency of the sideband, since Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \Omega_n \sim \sqrt{n}} . This can be measured in many ions by using hyperfine states to represent Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle |e{\rangle}} and Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle |g{\rangle}} , and measuring the probability Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle P_g} of being in Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle |g{\rangle}} after a blue sideband pulse of varying time Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle t} . An important experimental technique involved is temporarily mapping $|e{\rangle }$ to a non-fluorescing state such as the D level, such that the ion will fluoresce strongly only if it is in Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle |g{\rangle}} . This is known as shelving:

\noindent Shelving allows measurement of Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle P_g} with fidelity better than Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle 99.9\%} is many ions, such as $^{9}$BeFailed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle ^+} , in a time as short as Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle 100} Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \mu} s, with good photomultipliers and reasonable fluorescence collection efficiency. Using this technique, creation of $|n{\rangle }$ states has been verified experimentally:

Coherent states

Now consider the challenge of creating a coherent state

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle |\alpha \rangle = e^{-|\alpha|^2/2} \sum_n \frac{\alpha^n}{\sqrt{n!}} |n{\rangle} \,. }

This is a "classical" state, so intuitively, it is reasonable to think there should be a way to generate this state without going to a great deal of trouble, or much fine control. Indeed, it helps to recall that the coherent state is a displaced vacuum state,

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle |\alpha \rangle = D(\alpha)|0 \rangle = e^{i(\alpha^* a + \alpha a^\dagger )} |0{\rangle} \,, }

where the displacement operator Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle D(\alpha)} represents a classical force applied at the frequency of the oscillator, described by Hamiltonian Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \alpha^* a + \alpha a^\dagger } . For the case of a trapped ion, two Raman beams can be applied to effect such a Hamiltonian:

\noindent The two beams are detuned from the upper Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle P} state to a virtual level Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle P'} , and have a frequency difference of Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \nu} , the vibrational frequency of the trapped ion. The Hamiltonian realized is

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle H\sim \sum_n |P',n \rangle \langle g,n| + |g,n+1 \rangle \langle P',n| + h.c. \approx \Omega' (a+ a^\dagger ) \,, }

where the approximation becomes valid when the virtual level is adiabatically eliminated following the standard treatment for Raman transitions. This interaction can also be physically pictured as arising from the "moving standing wave" created by the two counter-propagating Raman beams:

\noindent This results in a field intensity Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \langle (\vec{E}_1 + \vec{E}_2)^2 \rangle \sim \cos(\Delta k z + \Delta \omega t)} , causing an AC stark shift of Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle |g{\rangle}} of

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle E_{AC} = \frac{\hbar\Omega^2}{\Delta} \cos(\Delta k z + \Delta \omega t) \,. }

The dipole force experienced by an atom in this potential is

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle F = \partial_x E_{AC} \approx \frac{\hbar\Omega^2\Delta k}{\Delta} \sin(\Delta \omega t) \,, }

which oscillates at the vibrational frequency, since Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \Delta \omega = \nu} . This picture thus confirms that the Raman beams drive the motional mode of the ion, and a coherent phonon state is thus produced from the driven harmonic motion. Experimentally, confirmation of the creation of such a coherent state has been obtained, by agreement with the expected Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle P_g} as function of the probing sideband pulse width:

Schr\"odinger cat state

The superposition of two coherent states, Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle |\alpha \rangle + |-\alpha{\rangle}} , has been likened to being a Schr\"odinger cat state; for an atom in this motional state of oscillation, it implies the atom is superposed in two positions simultaneously. Creating such a cat state can be accomplished with a trapped ion by applying a refined version of the Raman excitation used in creating a coherent state. Instead of exciting both spin states, polarized light can be applied to selectively apply the force only when the ion is in the Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle |e{\rangle}} state (example given for levels in Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle ^9} BeFailed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle ^+} :

This state-dependent force is then applied in the following procedure:

${\begin{array}{rcl}{\rm {start}}&\rightarrow &{\rm {Prepare}}~|g,0{\rangle }\\R_{y}(\pi /2)&\rightarrow &|g,0\rangle +|e,0{\rangle }\\D(\alpha )~{\rm {if}}~|e\rangle &\rightarrow &|g,0\rangle +|e,\alpha {\rangle }\\R_{x}(\pi )&\rightarrow &|e,0\rangle +|g,\alpha {\rangle }\\D(e^{i\phi }\alpha )~{\rm {if}}~|e\rangle &\rightarrow &|e,e^{i\phi }\alpha \rangle +|g,\alpha {\rangle }\\R_{y}(\pi /2)&\rightarrow &|g\rangle \left[{|e^{i\phi }\alpha {\rangle }+|\alpha \rangle }\right]+|e\rangle \left[{|e^{i\phi }\alpha {\rangle }-|\alpha \rangle }\right]\,.\end{array}}$

Afterwards, the probability of finding the ion in the ground state is

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle P_g = \frac{1+|{\langle}\alpha|e^{i\phi}\alpha{\rangle}|^2}{2} = \frac{1}{2} \left[ { 1+e^{-\alpha^2(1-\cos\phi)}\cos(\alpha^2\sin\phi) } \right] \,. }

Experimentally, this probability dependence on Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \phi} has been confirmed, for various values of $\alpha$, up to Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \alpha\approx 3} , corresponding to an ion separation of Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \delta Z \sim 83} nm, which is much larger than the vibrational wavefunction ground-state spread Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle z_0\sim 7} nm, and the ion size Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle a_0\sim 0.1} nm:

Arbitrary motional states

Quantum control allows arbitrary motional states of an ion to be systematically constructed using the carrier and sideband control Hamiltonians. Suppose we desire the state

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle |\psi \rangle = \sum_{n=0}^N c_n |g,n{\rangle} \,. }

Then there exist Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \phi_n} and Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \theta_n} such that

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle |\psi \rangle = \prod_{n=0}^N \left[ { R_x^{RSB}(\pi) R_{\phi_n}(\theta_n) } \right] |g,0{\rangle} \,. }

The validity of this recipe is straightforward to understand from the ladder picture of energy eigenstates:

\noindent Starting from Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle |g,0{\rangle}} , a carrier transition pulse $R_{\phi }(\theta )$ is used to move a desired amplitude to Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle |e,0{\rangle}} , then a red sideband Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \pi} pulse Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle R_x^{RSB}(\pi)} moves this to $|g,1{\rangle }$. Appropriately iterating on this sequence allows creation of an arbitrary motional state. This should come as no surprise, since we have already noted that the system is controllable. Of course, as we have seen, special states such as the coherent state can be realized more directly, and such direct recipes are often more robust against control errors, and can be quick enough to avoid decoherence induced, for example, by spontaneous emission. The physics of quantum control, and practical realizations of quantum control schemes, is thus an interesting challenge and an experimental art.